URANIUM IN SWEDEN
Sweden has significant oil shales which also contain an extensive mineral
potential. Swedish government geological reports estimate approximately 35
billion brls of oil using a 10% cut off grade. The contained metals are also
indicated in the billions of lbs., although it is low-grade.
The Swedish government has done a considerable amount of work on these
shales, and on two occasions has mined them for both uranium and oil. These
activities ceased in both cases due to the significant drop in their
commodity prices.
Continental has engaged a recently retired senior government geologist, who
has specialized in these shales. With his assistance, the company is taking
out licenses to cover a large percentage of the richest of these resources.
WHAT IS AN OIL SHALE?
Oil shale (known as ‘alum’ shale in Sweden) is a general term which
specifies a group of rocks rich enough in organic material (or ‘kerogen’) to
yield petroleum upon distillation. The kerogen can be converted to oil
through ‘pyrolysis’ – a chemical process in which the oil shale is heated to
445-500 °C in the absence of air and the kerogen is converted to oil and
separated (a process called "retorting").
The United States Energy Information Administration estimates the world
supply of oil shale at 2.6 trillion barrels of recoverable oil.
WHAT IS NUCLEAR POWER?
“Nuclear energy is the only non-greenhouse
gas-emitting power source that can effectively replace fossil fuels and
satisfy global demand”
Dr. Patrick Moore,
founder of Greenpeace
Nuclear power is now recognized as a practical, inexpensive and clean
(emissions-free) source of energy. Today’s nuclear energy production saves
around 2.4 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per year that would
otherwise be caused by coal-fired generation. In practical terms, this is a
crucial stabilizing factor, and the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) recently stated that to stabilize the present
levels of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, a 50-80% reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions is required.
Basically, nuclear energy produces electricity by boiling water, thereby
creating the steam which drives turbine generators. Nuclear is at its most
efficient when applied at a large scale, for a continuous - or ‘base load’ -
generation of electricity. The other main fuel for this base-load generation
is coal, which produces around 24 million Joules of energy per kg - compared
to the 500,000 million Joules of energy per kg produced by uranium. The
former is clearly the least demanding option, in regards to supply and cost.
This constant generation is crucial for the maintenance of any large power
grid. Other environmentally-friendly options, such as wind, hydro and solar
energy, are too dependant on weather conditions to be reliable for use on
such a scale.
Today, nuclear power accounts for about 16 per cent of the world’s
electricity, with about 440 plants in operation. Currently, the most
prevalent usage of nuclear energy is in the US, Japan, and France
(approximately 80% of their electricity is from nuclear power, with
contributions to power supply for many other countries in Europe). The
number of operating plants is changing; with many countries affected by
increasing demand for electricity, and the Kyoto Protocol’s emissions
restrictions. Much of the planned construction is in Asia – Japan, India,
and China specifically.
WHAT IS URANIUM?
Uranium is a metal which occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust, small traces
of which can be found virtually everywhere. It
is so incredibly dense that one pound of uranium measures only 1.3 inches in
diameter. The mineral and its byproducts are utilized
in many ways, from smoke detectors to food preservation,
but it is best known as the key ingredient in the generation of nuclear
power.
As a fuel, it is long-lasting and emissions-free; one tonne of natural
uranium produces more than 40 million kilowatt hours of electricity.
This is equivalent to burning 16,000 tonnes of coal, or 80,000 barrels of
oil.
Uranium ore can be mined a few different ways, generally by underground or
open-cut methods, depending on depth. From there it must be treated with
acid to dissolve and extract the uranium. It may also be mined by in situ
leaching (ISL), where it is dissolved from a porous underground orebody at
its point of discovery and pumped to the surface.
After these processes, the final product is uranium oxide concentrate
(U3O8). This is the form in which uranium is sold. It then undergoes
additional treatment to be used as fuel.
Besides its use in power generation, uranium is also commonly known for its
past role in military weaponry. But today, due to disarmament and increasing
demand, much military uranium is becoming available for electricity
production. Because bomb-grade uranium is highly-enriched, it is diluted
with depleted uranium before being used as fuel.
HOW IS IT DISPOSED OF?
Because all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle produce radioactive waste, the
costs of managing and disposing of uranium is internalized within the
initial electricity costs. In countries with nuclear power,
radioactive waste comprises under 1% of total industrial toxic wastes.
The radioactivity of all nuclear waste decays with time, subject to its
radioactivity level. Therefore, different methods of disposal are used
depending on the level of risk to people and environment.
- Low-level Wastes (LLW) are generated from hospitals and industry, as well
as the nuclear fuel cycle. They are tools, clothing, and anything else
containing small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. LLW does not
require shielding during handling and is fit for shallow land burial. To
reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. It
is about 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste.
- Intermediate-level Wastes (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity,
and therefore requires shielding. It is typically resins and chemical
sludges, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. To
aid in disposal, smaller items and non-solids are solidified in concrete or
bitumen. ILW makes up some 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity
of all radioactive waste.
- High-level Wastes (HLW) can be considered the “ash” from “burning”
uranium. It contains the fission products and elements generated in the
reactor core. It is highly radioactive and hot, so requires cooling and
shielding. HLW is primarily either used fuel in the form of fuel rods, or
reprocessing waste. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity
produced in the process of electricity generation, and a mere 3% of overall
volume.
However, previously uneconomical waste becomes increasingly economical as
uranium spot prices and global demand increases.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Critics may assert that uranium mines inevitably pollute the environment and
the effects of Chernobyl and Three Mile Island make the use of nuclear
energy impractical. Uranium mining is highly regulated, must have
environmental approvals prior to commencing, and must comply with all
environmental, safety, and occupational health conditions applicable, with
external audits. Increasingly, these are governed by international
standards. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), based
in Geneva, has developed a number of world standards for quality management
and for environmental management (ISO).
The nuclear industry has an excellent safety record, with some 12,000
reactor years of operation spanning five decades. The Chernobyl disaster was
the result of faulty Soviet design and not applicable to western reactors,
or any reactor that might be built today. There has been much confusion
about the real consequences of the accident, including implications for
health, the environment, nuclear safety, society, and the economies of
countries affected by the accident.
With respect to Three Mile Island, there were no deaths and no injuries or
detectable health impacts from the accident beyond the initial
stress-related effects. Applying the accident’s lessons resulted in
important and continuing improvement in the performance of all nuclear power
plants.
Of all energy sources, nuclear energy has perhaps the lowest impact on the
environment, especially in relation to kilowatts produced, because nuclear
plants do not emit harmful gases, require a relatively small area, and
effectively mitigate other impacts. In other words, nuclear energy is the
most “eco-efficient” of all energy sources because it produces the most
electricity in relation to its minimal environmental impact (NEI). There are
no significant adverse effects to water, land, habitat, species, and air
resources. Water discharged from a nuclear power plant contains no harmful
pollutants and meets regulatory standards for temperature designed to
protect aquatic life.
WEAPONS DISPOSAL
Since March 1993, 250 metric tons (t) of uranium from weapons have been
transformed into fuel for nuclear power plants (USEC). That’s the equivalent
of 10,000 dismantled nuclear weapons. This is the result of the United
States and the Russian Federation signing an agreement on the disposition
and purchase of 500 t of highly enriched uranium from dismantled Russian
nuclear weapons, the equivalent of 20,000
nuclear warheads.
Sources and Links:
Greenspirit Strategies –
www.greenspiritstrategies.com/F6.cfm
A communications consulting firm which focusses on sustainability issues.
Founded by one of the world’s foremost uranium advocates – Dr. Patrick
Moore – who also founded Greenpeace.
World Nuclear Association –
www.world-nuclear.org
A global organization which provides forums for the information and
commercial exchange of uranium.
Canadian Nuclear Association –
www.cna.ca
A non-profit organization representing Canadian nuclear industry;
specifically the development and growth of nuclear technologies for peaceful
purposes.
Uranium Information Center –
www.uic.com.au
A venue for education on uranium, with emphasis on Australian production and
use.
The Canadian Nuclear Society –
www.cns-snc.ca
A non-profit corporation focused on the exchange of information on applied
nuclear science and technology.
WISE Uranium Project –
www.wise-uranium.org
A part of the World Information Service on Energy which covers the health
and environmental issues of nuclear fuel production.
The Ux Consulting Company –
www.uxc.com
An affiliate of the Uranium Exchange Company. Produces special reports and
publications related to the uranium industry’s many facets.
Society of Economic Geologists Newsletter
– www.segweb.org
An international organization of individual members with interests in the
field of economic geology.
Footnotes
1 Swedish Geological Survey Report No. 56 “The Scandinavian Alum Shales”
2 United Nations Environment Programme
3 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy
Outlook 2006
4 World Nuclear Association
5 Uranium Information Centre
6 World Nuclear Association
7 Uranium Information Center
8 World Nuclear Association
9 Uranium Facts
10 Uranium Information Center
11 Uranium Facts
12 World Nuclear Association
13 Uranium Information Center
14 The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy
15 Excerpt from Society of Economic Geologists
Newsletter # 67 October 2006
16 Ibid.
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